In 1915, China was experiencing severe political, economic, and social problems. Two thousand years of imperial rule had ended in February 1912, which was followed by a power struggle between the northern and southern factions. Yuan Shikai, military commander of the northern faction, soon gained ascendancy, becoming president of the new republic. Yuan quickly made moves to consolidate power: establishing Beijing as the nation’s capital and purging political opposition and dissent.
On May 7, 1915, Japan sent the “Thirteen Demands” ultimatum to Yuan with a two-day deadline for response. Yuan, faced with internal political tensions, was forced to cede to the Japanese demands. Japan had gained a large sphere of interest in China and Manchuria with its victories in the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War. Hoping to gain greater control in China, in January 1915, the Japanese government sent the “21 Demands” to China, which would extend Japanese control in Manchuria and the Chinese economy.
Following China’s rejection of the “21 Demands” and facing pressure from the United States and Britain (two other countries vying for influence in China), Japan revised its position and issued the less harsh “13 Demands”, which China accepted on May 25, 1915.
In the aftermath, the United and States expressed strong disapproval to Japan’s actions. In China, anti-Japanese sentiment grew considerably, together with an upsurge in nationalism.