In July 1927, the National Revolutionary Army of the Kuomintang launched the Second Northern Expedition, aimed at defeating the Beiyang government and other regional warlords and reunifying China under its control. In the aftermath of the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that ended 2,000 years of imperial rule, China had fragmented into many regional domains controlled by warlords. The onset of the Northern Expedition also marks the start of the Chinese Civil War (1927-1950).
The Kuomintang launched its military campaign along three fronts: the left-wing/Communist faction advanced westward toward Wuhan; a right-wing force headed east for Shanghai; and Chiang’s forces, at the center, advanced for Nanjing. Ultimately, the three fronts achieved their military objectives. Within six months, the Kuomintang had defeated 34 warlords along its path towards the central regions of China.
In Nanjing, Chiang began a violent purge of Communist elements of the Kuomintang. During his military training in the Soviet Union, Chiang had determined that Communism, as well as democratic and other Western political ideologies were inapplicable to China. Chiang was a social conservative who believed that Communism was incompatible with China’s traditional values. His resolve to eliminate Communism reached the intensity of an obsession.
Chiang began his purge in Shanghai where his soldiers killed thousands of unsuspecting Communist civilians who had filled the streets to welcome the Kuomintang Army’s arrival. Other purges soon followed in Canton, Xiamen, Ningbo, Nanjing, Hangzhou, and Changsha, where thousands of Communists also were killed.
The remaining Communists went into hiding, some in urban areas, but the vast majority in the countryside, where they began working with and mobilizing the peasants and villagers. With the purges, the alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China ended. The Soviet Union also stopped its support for Chiang.
In August 1927, in response to the purges, the Communists in Nanchang broke out in rebellion. Chiang sent his forces to Nanchang, where they easily quelled the rebellion and forced the Communists to flee to the hinterlands of southern China. Another Communist rebellion in Hunan led by Mao Zedong, then a regional commander, was put down as well. Mao and his supporters were forced to retreat to the Jiangxi countryside. There, they established the Chinese Soviet Republic, a quasi-government that formed subordinate administrative councils called “soviets” in other provinces, including Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Henan, Hubei, and Sichuan. Mao’s government gained widespread support from the local rural population. Initially, its small militia was limited to conducting hit-and-run guerilla warfare against government forces. By mid-1932, however, Mao’s militia, now known as the People’s Liberation Army, or colloquially, the Red Army, had grown to 45,000 regulars and 200,000 auxiliaries.
Meanwhile, the left-wing Kuomintang faction, led by Wang Jingwei, established Wuhan as its capital, but the city soon was attacked by a warlord ally of Chiang. Wang’s government collapsed, leaving Chiang as the undisputed leader of the Kuomintang.
The Nationalists (as Chiang’s army now was called) resumed their campaign toward northern China. In June 1928, they captured Beijing, the capital of China’s most powerful warlord, who thereafter pledged allegiance to Chiang. Beijing’s capture was significant, as the city was the symbolic and historical seat of authority in China. This achievement legitimized Chiang’s government, as it meant the complete – albeit symbolic – reunification of the country. Chiang had achieved reunification through military victories, as well as by making alliances with many warlords scattered throughout northern, central, and southern China.
Soon, Chiang’s government became recognized by many countries around the world. From his capital in Nanjing, Chiang began to rebuild China along the modern Western model. However, his efforts would be fraught with difficulties and ultimately not be fulfilled.
Continuing Troubles In May 1930, a territorial dispute in China’s Central Plains erupted into a major war among regional warlords who had made alliances with the Kuomintang. Soon, Chiang’s government was drawn into the war. Over one million soldiers fought in the conflict that claimed high casualty rates on all sides. Ultimately, Chiang succeeded in quelling the rebellion. He realized, however, that China was far from being reunited and that the warlords could pose a constant and serious threat to his authority. Unknown to Chiang at that time, the real danger to his rule would be the Communists.
Chiang soon learned of the existence of the Chinese Soviet Republic in Jiangxi led by a regional warlord, Mao Zedong. He sent his forces to attack Jiangxi and other Communist-held regions, starting the final phase of the Chinese Civil War.